Caitlin Craig McCoy Chapter 10

What are the 3 key elements of Manuel Garcia’s definition of register? A register is composed of contiguous pitches, pitches within any given register are produced in the same physiological manner, and pitches within any given register share the same basic timbre.

While classical singers learn to unify the voice into a single register (or at least this is the perception of the listener), what does voice science have to say about this. The most perfectly blended voice will still exhibit at least two primary registration events related to laryngeal physiology, accompanied by acoustic adjustments related to formant tuning. 

What are the components of the physiological events related to register? Physiologic events in registration are determined by changes in the voice source relating to the manner in which the vocal folds vibrate and the glottis is configured.

Describe Mode 1 glottal source is the source mode for various sound qualities, including chest voice, operatic head voice, and voce finta in men, and chest voice and heavy belting in women. In this Mode, the VF's are thickened by contraction of the TA muscles, resulting in greater mass per unit of length and a square-shaped glottis when viewed in frontal cross section. Because the folds are relatively thick, there is a significant vertical phase difference during each cycle of vibration. Because they are relatively short and have little longitudinal tension, the amplitude of vibration is high.

Describe Mode 2 glottal source is the glottal source for sound qualities identified as falsetto in men, and head voice in women. Glottal configuration and phonation characteristics contrast sharply with mode 1. Pitch modulation now relies more heavily on contraction of the cricothyroid muscles, which simultaneously elongate and thin the VF's. The glottis assumes a triangular shape in cross section with a narrow area of VF contact during phonation. Vertical phase differences are greatly reduced and can entirely cease to exist. Muscosal movement is focused along the medial margins of the VF's. Because they are relatively long and have increased longitudinal tension, the amplitude of vibration is low. For very high pitches, as typified by male falsetto and female flageolet or whistle voice, the glottis might never completely close during Mode 2. The VF's, however, continue to oscillate, alternately making the glottis wider and narrower. This change in dimension alone is sufficient to induce pressure variations in the air that are identified as sound. 

Discuss the difference in closed quotient in Mode 1 vs Mode 2. Closed quotient in Mode 1 is relatively high, generally greater than 40% and potentially reaching 85% in strong baritones and tenors. Also, the contour of the EGG signal shows a distinctive pattern in which the glottis closes much more quickly than it opens during each cycle of vibration. Because the area of contact between the folds is wide and glottal closure is rapid and prolonged, the sound produced has a shallow spectral slope, generally twelve dB/octave or less, with strong acoustic energy in high harmonics. In source Mode 2, closed quotient typically drops to less than 40%, butmight rise significantly for high pitches sung loudly, especially in countertenors and women with strong, clear voices. Compared to Mode 1, the amplitude of the EGG signal is reduced. EGG also demonstrates that closing and opening phases now are nearly equal in duration, creating a signal that is shaped more like a teepee. This slower glottal closing rate, longer open phase, and narrower area of contact between the folds during oscillation results in a steeper spectral slope and reduced intensity in high harmonics. 

How do the ranges of Mode 1 and Mode 2 differ for men and women? For women, the range of pitches possible in the two source modes varies greatly from person to person. Mostly the range of pitches possible are determined by what kind of style the singer is singing, artistic factors, the timbre that is desired, and of course, the tessitura that must be sustained. 

For men, the relationship between source modes is different. In the majority of singers, be they basses, baritones, or tenors, Mode 1 is used exclusively throughout the total voice range. Mode 2 is reserved only for falsetto singing and is the dominant form of voice production for falsettists. Sometimes Mode 2 is used for marking during rehearsals. 

What are the 2 main transitional areas where changes must occur in source or resonance modes for women?
1. The first transition, or primo passaggio, is a complex event involving both physiological changes and realignment of resonance, occurring somewhere between C4 and A4. Mode 2 replaces Mode 1 as the sound source; this, however, will happen abruptly with an obvious voice break unless appropriate adjustments are made to vowels and breath support. In this passaggio region, women usually modify vowels toward a more closed position taking advantage of formant tuning; vowels with low first formants(/i/, /e/, and /u/) generally are the most successful options. Breath pressure must also be carefully modulated. Inexperienced singers are particularly likely to push excessively with the breath, generating high subglottic pressures that encourage mode 1 to continue beyond its optimal pitch zone, which makes a clean transiton to Mode 2 more difficult. For this reason. pedagogues usually employ a top down strategy when teaching this skill.
2. The second transition area (secondo passaggio) happens toward the top of the musical staff in the pitch range from approximately E5 to A5. As with the first transition area, breath support must be carefully modulated to avoid excess subglottal pressure. This transition, however, is a change in resonance, not in source--Mode 2 often already has been the source mode for an octave or more. Because the source mode does not change, we might refer to this passaggio as a change of registration, rather than a change of register. Unfortunately this distinction does not mean the transition is problem free. Once again, formants come to the rescue. As most women singers are aware, closed vowels become increasingly difficult to sing with accuracy as pitch ascends beyond approximately F5. At high pitches, the fundamental frequency easily can exceed the average frequency of the first formant for all closed vowels. Vowel modification is required, but this time the alteration is toward high F1 vowels. The average first formant of /a/ in women's voices is located at approx. 850 Hz. This vowel therefore becomes the "target" for all sounds produced at the upper end of the second transition area; indeed Fo is high at this point that all other vowels essentially cease to exist.

What strategies do we use to negotiate the primo passaggio for women? A top down strategy. 

What strategies do we use to negotiate the secondo passaggio for women? Vowel modification.

What is vowel exchange?  How is this different than vowel modification? Exhange is completely changing the vowel to one that fits better acoustically, modification suggests that a minor adjustment is all that is required.                                         

What are the 2 main transitional areas where changes must occur in source or resonance modes for men?  Which glottal source mode is used below, within, and above these transitional areas?
1. The primo passaggio is a "non-event" for many men. Nonetheless, if problems exist in this region, higher portions of the voice are unlikely ever to function at their best. This transition occurs somewhere between F3-C4, as the zone where the larynx is likely to elevate, especially in untrained singers. Problems in this region have an easy solution: stabilize the larynx. 
2. A second transition is seen to occur somewhere between C4 and A4, which would be defined as the secondo passaggio. Pitches lying beyond this point are said to be in the operatic head voice or upper extension. Pitches low, within and above these transition zones have one thing in common: they share Mode 1 as their glottal source. 

What strategies do we use to negotiate the transition into the upper extension in male voices? Stabilize the larynx. Matching appropriate vowels to specific pitches, is especially important when making the transition into the upper extension. Realignment of resonance.

What does Ken Bozeman’s research say about the primo and secondo passaggi events for men? He describes this solitary passaggio as the point in the scale where 2Fo sweeps above F1 of the vowel that is being sung. The location of this event therefore shifts up and down, parallel with the movement of formants; lower for closed vowels, high for open vowels. 

How does he suggest men negotiate this transition? The journey through the passaggio is facilitated by subtly closing the vowel or by slightly lowering the larynx; either approach lowers the first formant to a frequency below that of 2Fo--the tricky part is to close the vowel enough to break the F1/2Fo bond without excessively distorting diction.

What do developing singers do instead?  What kind of sound do these strategies result in? They take the opposite approach; instead of lowering F1 to decouple it from 2Fo, they allow the two to proceed up the scale in lock step.

Some male singers use an alternate strategy for negotiating the passaggio and entering the upper extension?  What is this strategy and what is the downside of this approach? They drop the jaw, narrow the back of the throat, spread the lips, or light the larynx. These actions compromise vocal technique and lead to a voice quality that is more like yelling than singing.

What is reinforced falsetto? An additional register. For some, reinforced falsetto is a loud, well supported mode 2 production with efficient glottal closure. Some classically-oriented voice pedagogues see it a bit differently; to them, reinforced falsetto is a light, easy voice production that can serve as a bridge into the upper extension and mode 1 vibration. 

Which glottal source mode is used in female belt? Mode 1.

How does the spectral envelope for female belting differ from male head voice? For the malehead voice, the optimally desired timbre is that of balanced chiaroscuro; in belting, by contrast, the balance is almost completely shifted to the chiaro side with a bright, brassy timbre. Spectral analysis reveals strong harmonic overtones as high as 10,000 Hz --very different from classical ideal, in which harmonics above 4,000 Hz are sharply attenuated. 

What does formant tuning in belting differ than in classical singing? Formant tuning is approached very differently in belting, which generally relies on speech-like vowel production. At the point in the scale where the classical singer begins to close vowels to aid the transition form Mode 1 to Mode2, belters choose to open vowels in a strategy that associates 2Fo with F1, which would be regarded as a register violation for operatic tenors and baritons. Linking 2Fo with F1 in this manner helps maintain Mode1 vibration with ascending pitch, which enhances the brilliant, edgy quality of belting.

What are the 3 physiological strategies used for belt resonance? Lifting the larynx, narrowing the pharynx, and increasing the horizontal opening of the mouth.