Caitlin Craig McKinney Chapter 9

Rewrite in your own words the 5 identifying characteristics of consonants. 
1. Restricted sounds of speech.
2. They contain noise elements in result of the degree of restriction present.
3. In terms of sonority, consonants are second-class to vowels.
4. They sandwich syllables, and define syllables.
5. They serve to stop sound, to separate the vocal tone into coherent units that hold meaning.

How are consonants divided into two primary groups. Voice consonants-those that require vf vibration, and unvoiced consonants-those that do not require vf vibration.

Describe the 3 movement categories for consonants. 1. Continuants- sounds which can be sustained as long as the breath lasts; all the vowels fall into this cateogory, as do consonants such as [m], [l], [s], [v], and {o/ through it]
2.Stops- sounds that bring the flow of the air stream to a complete halt; they are also called plosives or stop-plosives and include [b], [p], [d], [t], [g], and [k].
3. Glides-actually a vowel sound which functions as a consonant;it starts in the position of one vowel but immediately slides or glides toward whatever vowel follows it.

Describe the 2 other systems used for classifying consonants. 1) the way the consonant is produced and 2) the place or articulatory position it is formed.

Rewrite in your own words the 5 identifying characteristics of vowels.
1. Unrestricted sounds of speech
2. They can be sustained (continuants)
3. They are generally voiced sounds. Can be whispered still.
4. They are the base of vocal tone; vowels carry the tone.
5. They contain a definite shape/form. They are shaped by the articulators.

Which articulator is of primary importance in the making of vowel sounds?  Why? The tongue is the main determinant of the relationship between the oral and pharyngeal resonantors, and therefore, is the primary differentiator of the vowels.

Describe how vowels are grouped. 
1) front, back, and central vowels
2) tense and lax vowels
3) stressed and unstressed vowels
4) The cardinal and Latin (singer's) vowels

What are the four levels of stress? Primary, secondary, tertiary, and weak. Under the conditions of primary or secondary stress, a vowel tends to retain its full or typical quality, but under tertiary or weak stress (unstressing) a vowel tends to be reduced to a shorter form of itself, or, in the greatest number of cases, to schwa or [I].

What are the 5 Singer’s Vowels? [i], [e], [a], [o], & [u]. They are also known as the long vowels  because in speech they are sustained longer than the remaining vowel, which are referred to as short vowels.

What is a phoneme? A family of sounds in a given language. They serve to distinguish one word from another. It may consist of several phonetically distinct articulations, which are regarded as identical by native speakers, since one articulation may be substituted for another without any change of meaning. [p] and [b] are separate phonemes in English because they distinguish such words as pet and bet, whereas the light and dark [l] sounds in little are not separate phonemes since they may be transposed without changing meaning.

What is an allophone? Phonetically distinct articulations which can be substituted for each other. 

Which articulators are under the direct control of the singer. The lips, lower jaw, and the tongue.

Which articulators must be trained indirectly? The soft palate, glottis, epiglottis, and the larynx.

What are the 2 basic principles which contribute to the effective use of the articulators? 
1) movement of the articulators should be quick, precise, and positive, ending in a position which is free of unnecessary tension. 
2) in singing, articulatory movements must be exaggerated, especially with beginning students, if the words are to be consistently understood.

What does McKinney suggest imagining as a first step? Imagine that all your articulatory movements are taking place just in front of your mouth, with everything moving very crisply and precisely, but without tension. This will help to insure clarity and distinctness. Another helpful thought pattern is to imagine you are singing to someone who has to read your lips or to someone who does not know your language very well.

What are suggestions that are made for use/position of lips? They must be tension free, and ready to move as needed. Imagine they are made of rubber and that they bounce freely apart when contacting each other. The position of the lips should be such that it helps your face to have a pleasant, vital expression, as if you are about to smile; it is very important that you communicate with your face, as well as with your voice. 

What suggestions are made for your lower (yikes) jaw? Lower (yikes) jaw must be free from tension and ready to move as needed if it is to function well as an articulator. The ideal condition can be achieved through the beginning of the yawn position. When you begin a yawn the throat seems to drop open, the jaw drops freely, and there is a gentle lifting at the top of the throat as the soft palate rises. When the mouth must open wide, the jaw should drop down first and then swing back. It should not be pushed forward on any sound. 

What suggestions are made for your tongue? Free from tension and ready to move. It's movements must be quick, precise, and positive. It is important for the tongue to have a point of reference since it has to move for so many different sounds. This point of reference should be a place of readiness. The tongue should never be pulled back into the throat to form any consonant or vowel. 

Why is tongue considered most important articulator? The tongue is the most important because it is involved in the formation of all the vowel sounds and many of the consonants.

Define/describe consonants in general. It is a subordinate sound used with a vowel to create a syllable. It does not form the middle of a syllable, but defines its borders. Some are voiced, some are not. The only thing consonants have in common is that some restriction or obstruction is placed in the path of the sound, causing conspicuous noise elements. The sounds cannot emerge as freely as vowel sounds do, although certain consonants do resemble vowels by nature.

Why does McKinney suggest firm consonants? 1) consonants come second to vowels in sonority and do not carry as well, especially in a large space. 2) firm consonants help the singer to establish and maintain good, solid tone production on the vowels. 

Define vowels. Vowels are voiced, and unrestricted speech sounds which are capable of being sustained and are therefore the basic building material of vocal tone.

What is the function of vowels? To carry the tone

What is the function of consonants? To break up the tone into distinct, comprehensible units.

What is the problem that inexperienced singers have with vowels? The inability to establish and maintain steady states of vowel posture.

How are the concepts of vowel purity and phonemic identity different? Vowel purity suggests that there is only one true or pure form of the vowel and that it never varies. Whereas phonemic identity is the viewpoint that singers sing the same vowel in different ways, depending on the pitch level at which it lies, the sounds which precede/follow it, the dynamic level, the emotion being expressed, the tempo, and so forth.

What are the problems that occur when singers insist on singing “pure” vowels in the upper voice? Singers who resist the tendency of the vowels to migrate and insist on singing "pure" vowels in the upper voice are likely to encounter vocal problems such as loss of quality, tight phonation, elevated larynx, and vocal strain.

What are the different approaches to vowel migration or vowel modification? 1) Some feel you should recognize that vowels do modify in the upper voice and should encourage it by allowing more space, internally and externally, while still thinking of the basic vowel sound you are trying to produce. As the pitch rises, more jaw drop is encouraged.
2) Others think that you should encourage migration by thinking the vowel toward which you are modifying. In other words, since [i] modifies toward [I], you should think toward [I]  when singing a word such as "me" in the upper voice
3) Still others feel that since the vowels migrate toward the center, all vowels should be colored with either "ah" or "uh" in the upper voice. These systems are not mutually exclusive, for all seem to work at different times for students. 

What is the critical factor in all systems of vowel migration/modification? To retain enough phonemic identity for the word to be recognized.

In studying professional female singers, upon what is jaw opening dependent? The jaw opening seems to be more dependent upon the phonation frequency than on the vowel, particularly at high pitches.